Marriage

 Meaning and Definition

oMarriage is the socially approved way of establishing  a family of procreation (breeding) (Gillan and Gillan).

oMarriage is a contract for the production and maintenance of  children ( Malinosky)

oMarriage is the relatively permanent bond  between permissible mates (Robert H. Lowie)

oMarriage is the public joining together , under socially specified  regulations  of a man and women as husband and wife (Alfred Mcclung Lee)

 Meaning and Definition

oMarriage is the socially approved way of establishing  a family of procreation (breeding) (Gillan

and Gillan).

oMarriage is a contract for the production and maintenance of  children ( Malinosky)

oMarriage is the relatively permanent bond  between permissible mates (Robert H. Lowie)

oMarriage is the public joining together , under socially specified  regulations  of a man and women as husband and wife (Alfred Mcclung Lee)

Characteristics

qUniversality   

qRelationship between man and women

q Marriage bond is Enduring (permanent)

qMarriage requires social  Approval

qMarriage is associated  with some civil or religious ceremony

q Marriage creates mutual  obligation (contract)

Functions

q Regulation of sex life

qMarriage leads to  the establishment of  the family

qProvides for economic cooperation

qMarriage contributes the emotional and  Intellectual  Inter-stimulation  of the partners

qMarriage aims to social solidarity 

Monogamy

q One man marries one woman

qMost widespread form of marriage

q It has almost universal practice at present

qAncient Romans and Spartans had given recognition to it

q Ancient Hindus  regarded monogamy as the most ideal  form of marriage

Endogamy

qEndogamy is the rule of marriage in which life partners are to be selected within the group.

q Within the group we  mean the caste, class, tribe, race etc. we have caste endogamy, class endogamy, race endogamy etc.

q Example: Brahmin has to marry with Brahmin Newar has to marry with Newar (caste endogamy) etc.

• Advantages

qIt contributes to the group unity and solidarity

q it helps to  preserve group culture

Disadvantages

q By dividing the society it strikes  at national unity

q By limiting the choice of life partners it may promote evil practices such as dowry system, bride price etc.

Exogamy

q Almost the opposite of endogamy

q Rule of marriage in which an individual has to marry outside his own group

qNear relatives are not supposed  to marry among themselves

Types

qGotra Exogamy: one marring with outside one’s own gotra.

q Village Exogamy: many Indian tribes like Naga, Garo, Munda have the practice of marri

ng outsides the village

qPinda Exogamy: those belong to the same pinda or sapinda  can not marry within themselves.

Social Stratification

 Meaning:

•Differentiation is the key note of human society.

•Society rest on the principle of difference.

•In every society there is social differentiation of the population by  age, sex, occupation, and personal characteristics.

• There is difference between men and women,  children and old men, rulers and ruled, rich and poor etc.

• According to Talcott  Parsons  Possession ( ownership),  qualities and performance are the major cause of differentiation.

•No two individuals are exactly alike.

•All societies arrange their members  in terms of superiority, inferiority, and equality.

•The vertical scale of evaluation, this place of people  in strata , or  layers, is called stratification. Those in the top  stratum  have more power, privilege, and prestige than those below.

•Stratification is simply a  process of interaction  of differentiation where by some people come  rank

higher than others . 

• Definitions:

• The process by which individual and groups  are ranked  in a more  or less  enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification (Ogburn and Nimkoff).

•Social stratification  is the division of society  into permanent groups  of categories liked with each other  by the relationship of  superiority and subordination( Gisbert).

•A stratified society is one marked by  inequality, by differences among people  that are evaluated  by them as being  lower and higher (Lundberg)

  Nature or Characteristics or features

1.It is social:  it does not represent  biologically caused inequalities.

2. It is ancient:  Stratification system is quite old.

3.It is universal: it is  a world wide phenomenon.

4. It is  in diverse form:  It has never been uniform  in all the societies.

5. It is consequential: specially there  are two kinds of consequences i) life chances : refer to  infant

mortality,  longevity, physical and mental illness etc. ii) life styles:   refer to   residential areas, one’s 

education, means of recreation etc.

● 1.Class System of Stratification:

• In sociological meaning, social class is the social structural position groups hold relative to the

economic, social, political, and cultural resources of society.

•Class stratification is a form of social stratification in which a society tends to divide into separate classes  whose members have different access to resources and power. An economic and cultural gap usually exists between different classes. People are usually born into their class, though social mobility allows for some individuals to attain a higher-level class or fall to a lower-level one.

v •According to Ogburn  and Nimkoff a social class is  one or two or more broad groups  of individuals  who are ranked by members of the  community in socially superior and inferior positions.

• Max Weber  held that  classes are  aggregates  of individual who have the  same opportunities  of acquiring goods, the same exhibited standard  of living

• Each particular social class  has its own particular  social behavior,  its standards and occupation• 

 Features of Class Stratification

1.A system of hierarchy of status.

2.A system of social ranking based primarily on economic position.

3.      A system marked by unequal distribution of wealth and power.

4.A system in which status is achieved by one’s own efforts rather than ascribed, assigned or inherited.

5.A system having some degree of permanency of the class structure.

6.A system based on stratum (class) consciousness and solidarity.

7.A system having distinctive mode of life (lifestyle) and cultural expressions of each class.

8.A system based on the recognition of superiority and inferiority in relation to those who stand or below in the social hierarchy.

9.     A system in which boundaries between classes are fluid and are less precisely defined.

10.  A system in which social classes act as sub-cultures—each social class is a system of behaviour, a set of values and a way of life.

Social Institutions

Meaning:

qIt is the simplest and most elementary forms of society

qThe family is the first group  in which we find ourselves.

qIt is the most permanent  and persistent of all social institutions

qIn sociological meaning  the family is the small group consisting  ordinarily of father, mother,  one or more children  and sometimes  near and distant relatives.

                                                         Some Definitions

q Family is the more or less durable  association  of husband and wife  with or without child, or of a

man or woman alone, with children (M. F. Nimkoff).

qThe biological social unit composed of husband, wife and children (Eliot and Merrill).

q A group defined by sex relationship sufficiently precise  and enduring  to provide  for the

procreation and upbringing of children (Maciver).

 Characteristics

qMarriage relationship

q selection of mates

q A form of marriage

qA system of nomenclature ( classification)

q A way of tracing the Descent  ( Descent= social recognition of biological relationship between individuals

qA common residence

q An economic provision

Types: Nuclear and Joint

Nuclear Family

qIt is comprised of one married couple  residing together  with their children

Joint or extended family

q Extended family are the whole network of parents, children, and other  relatives  who form a

family unit( Read more from different sources)

Patriarchal:

qThe male of the family is possessed of inclusive powers

q Male is the owner and administrator of family property and right

qMale enjoys full authority over the family members

qThe family system of Nepal is based on Patriarchal

 Chief characteristics of  patriarchal  family

q the wife after marriage comes to live in the home of the husband

qThe father is the supreme lord of the family property

qDescent is reckoned through the father. the children  are  known by the  name of the family of their father.

q the children can inherit the property of their  father only. They have no right  over the property of  the mother’s family.

1. Matriarchal

q In the matriarchal  family the authority vest in the woman head of the  family with the male being subordinate.

qShe is the owner of  property and rules over the family

qThe earliest types of the family was the Matriarchal

q

Chief characteristics of  Matriarchal

  family

qDescent is reckoned through the mother

qThe authority in the family rests in the  hands of wife .

qProperty is transferred through the  mother and only female succeed to it.

  Some of the function of the family have radically changed today while some others have receivedmore attention  of the public

•The sexual regulation function  of the family has not changed much

•The reproductive function of the family has suffered  in the Western societies.

•In the past fifty years  the parental and education functions  of the family have been  shifted to  certain external agencies like hospital, maternity home, child care centers , nurseries, kindergartens etc

 •The protective functions of the family have declined particularly in the west

• the economic function of the family has been disturbed a great deal ( due to low and more members)

•The recreational function of the family is loosing importance

•It seems that socialization functions of the family  is gaining increased  attention.

 Some of the function of the family have radically changed today while some others have received

more attention  of the public

•The sexual regulation function  of the family has not changed much

•The reproductive function of the family has suffered  in the Western societies.

•In the past fifty years  the parental and education functions  of the family have been  shifted to  certain external agencies like hospital, maternity home, child care centers , nurseries, kindergartens etc

Causes of Social Change

1.Technological and Economic Changes-

a) Agricultural advancements:

  Examples include irrigation, change in plow system,  establishing agricultural industry that develop the surplus food which lead to population growth and urbanization. People were able to work outside of the farm.

b) Industrialization :

     The process of changing from a manual labor force to a technology driven labor force in which machines play a large role.

  2. Modernization: 

  The process of moving from an agrarian to industrial society.

  Characteristics of modern societies

  ▶Larger role of government in society and bureaucracy to run governments,

  ▶Large, formal organizations and division of labor based on specialization of skills and abilities into occupations.

    3. Urbanization:  

  When large populations live in urban areas rather than rural areas known as urbanization. Usually results from economic opportunities: either people move to a city for jobs, or rural areas become the sites of large businesses which lead to population growth.

  4. Bureaucratization: 

  By which most formal organizations in a society (businesses, government, non-profits) run their organizations via the use of extreme rational and impersonal thinking, an extreme division of labor, and record keeping.

5. Conflict and Competition :

  These also play an important role to social change. For examples: War due to religion, ethnic tensions, competition for resources, gender and women’s movement like for equal payment and property. Race and Civil Rights Movement, collective political power, homosexuality becoming more available, but still denied civil and human rights. But Positive Outcomes are like solidarity, safety notions, positively  social development, welfare activities are enhancing .

6. Diffusion:

  Population in the world are adopting  new goods and services from anywhere he or she stays. Much of the materialist products are being applied to following the  marketing policy (celebrities campaigns in drinking milk, cold drinks), public health (birth control in less developed countries) etc.

7. Acculturation

  Examples: Asian Americans, American Indians are being eliminated through the dominancy of white American people. People can prevent social change by preventing acculturation,

Conflict Approach to Social Change  According to conflict approach

1. Every society is  subjected  at  every moment  to change, hence social change is ever present

2. Every society experiences  at every moment  social conflict, hence social conflict is ever present.

3. Every element in society contributes to change

4. Every society rests on  constraint of some of  its members  by others

( see detail in conflict perspective at unit II)

Social Change

•Meaning, definitions and features of social change

Meaning:

•Change is the only one permanent phenomenon in the society

• Change is the law of nature and it is on going process.

• Every society and culture, no matter  how traditional and conservative , is constantly undergoing change.

• the term social change  is used to  indicate  the change  that take place  in human interactions and interrelation.

•Society is web of social relationship and hence  social change  obviously means a change  in the system of social relationship.

•Change in the s Definition:

•Social change is a term  used to  describe  variations in,  or modifications  of , any  aspect  social process, social patterns,  social interaction or social organization ( M.E Jones).

• Social change may be defined  as a new  fashion or mode, either  modifying  or replacing  the old, in the life of people  or in the operation in the society( Majumdar, H. T)

• Social change refers to  social change  in the human relationships ( Maclver)

•To change in the nature, the social institutions, the social behaviour or the social relations of a society, community of people, or other social structures ocial institutions, the rules of social behavior, value systems or the social relations of a society or community

• Nature or features of social change

1.Social change is continuous

2. Social change is temporal

3. Social change is environmental: it must take place  within a geographic or physical and cultural context.

4. Social change is human change.

5. Social change results from interaction of number of factors like physical, biological, cultural and others.

6. social change may create chain reaction

7. Social change   may be planned or unplanned

8. short versus long- run change

9.Social change is an objective term.

Characteristics of Change

•Direction of Change –positive or negative?

•Rate of Change – slow, moderate, or fast?  What factors are affecting rate?

 •Sources – what factors are behind change?  Exogenous (from another society) or

Endogenous (from within the society)

•Controllability – look at the degree to which social change can be controlled or 

engineered (e.g. eliminating racism and discrimination)

 

Methods of sociology (Scientific methods and limitations, sociology as a science)

Sociology has been trying  to develop its own method of study. Some key methods of  sociology  are listed below

1.The comparative method

2.The historical method

3.The statistical method

4.The case study method

5.The functional method (Functionalism)

6.  The scientific method

7.  Limitation of scientific method in sociology

8.  The scientific view point

9.  Sociology is a science

10.  The sociology point of view

 The Scientific Method

•Any kind of science has its own method of study. So, being a  social science sociology has also specific scientific  methods for study

•The scientific methods consists of certain steps which are described below

1.Formulation of the problem

•A problem is the gap of knowledge, something not understood.

•Problem may be simple or complex

•Problem should define properly

•The causal  observation and  an idea regarding the  existing amount of knowledge  on the particular issue may help to define  the problem properly.

• 2.Formulation of Hypothesis

•Primary idea which guide us  in our study is the hypothesis

•It is the tentative explanation of phenomenon

•It is provisional ( temporary) supposition (belief)  which is not at proved  but is anticipated  to be correct.

•Example : There will be significant differences across gender, ethnicity and year of

experiences  of leaders and their leadership in society.

• 3. Observation and collection of data

•The formulated hypothesis will have to be tested.

•For this it is necessary to  collect facts

•In social investigation  data will be collected by  interview schedule, questionnaire, field observation etc.

4.Analysis and synthesis

• After collecting the data they must be  processed and analyzed in order to  draw proper  inferences (conclusion )

•In this step we should conduct classification of data i.e arranging the data in different groups as per their nature.

5.Generalization

• After  the data have been collected, processed and analyzed we have to draw board inferences or conclusions or generalizations.

6.Formulation of theory and law

•When a scientist successes  in describing and explaining the relation between various facts he/she has formulated a theory.

•When those facts have been tested  and accepted   by the scientist as a true mater then the theory may be properly regarded  as a law.

6. Problem of objectivity

•There is the subjective nature of social phenomenon. The social researcher  or observer is also

a component of the society. so,  in the study there is the possibility of biasness .

In conclusion

•  There is limitation of the scientific method of study of sociology. In addition to scientific

method sociology should adopt other method like comparative, statistically, social survey etc.

Sociology as a science

According to W.F.Ogburn an American, sociologist sociology is a science, according to him

science  is to be judged  by three criteria

1.The reliability of  its body of knowledge

2.The organization of knowledge  and,

3.its method

•In order to judge  whether sociology is science or not, it is necessary to examine using above

three criteria

  Methods

•Scientific methods start with problem identification and  formulating hypothesis. We

adopt this method in sociology as well though experimentation of laboratory situation is dificult

in sociology.

In conclusion

• Science is the method for discovering the truth. There are many methods and techniques in

sociology. If these are properly applied , sociology acts as a genuine science.

   Methods of Sociology

Comparative Method

•In this method, different institutions are studied in various societies in the various points of

time.

• After the study, analysis and comparison is drawn to discover new facts or relations.

•Thus it is a method of comparing various societies or groups within the same society to show

why they are similar or different in certain respects.

Historical Method

•Historical method is that approach of study that draws our attention towards details of the past.

• The classical sociologists did not have modern transport and communication system to visit

various places and naturally they had to rely more on written records than our actual

observation of the social phenomena.

•Darwin’s theory of evolution and Karl Marx’s law of economic determinism are examples of

this method.

Statistical Method

•Statistical method refers to the method that is used to measure social phenomena

mathematically.

•Statistics include collection of numerical facts relating to any field of inquiry in a systematic

matter and their analysis and interpretation.

Case Study Method

•The case study is a form of qualitative analysis. It involves very careful and complete

observation of a person, situation or institution.

•The idea behind this method is that any case being studied is representative of many similar

cases and thus it makes generalization possible.

Functional Method

•Functional method is based on an assumption that the total social system of the society is made

up of parts, which are interrelated and interdependent.•It is believed that each part has the

specialized function and any one part of the social system can be understood only in its 

relationships with other parts as well as with the whole system.